The Pharmacological Evaluation of Flax Seed Oil
Abstract
Flax seed oil is important food and nutrition sources. It has a low content of saturated fatty acids (9% of all the fatty acids), a moderate content of single saturated fatty acids (about 18%) and a high content of unsaturated fatty acids (about 73%). This oil can be used as a nutritional supplement and is significant in respect of containing omega-3 fatty acid, especially a high level of ALA and a low level of omega-6 fatty acids. The protein content of flax seed varies between 20-30%, and it contains a high level of globulin (linin and conlinin) and gluten. The proportion of non-protein nitrogen constitutes 21.7% of the total nitrogen content. The total nitrogen content has been reported as 3.25g/100 grams of seed. Today, flax seed stands out among the functional additives in the food industry due to the presence of α-linolenic acid, lignans and fibers in its content. Among the oils obtained from seeds, flax seed comes into prominence since it has high contents of α-linoleic acid (ALA, 18:3n-3) and lignans. Flax seed contains oil by 35-45%, and 45-52% of it consists of ALA. ALA is classified as omega-3 group fatty acid and has anti-inflammatory, antithrombotic and antiarrhythmic characteristics.
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References
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3. Bhatty, R. S. "Compositional analysis of laboratory–prepared and commercial samples of linseed meal and of hull isolated from flax." Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society, 1995, 67:79-84.
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11. Dupasquier, C. M., Dibrov, E., Kneesh, A. L., Cheung, P. K., Lee, K. G., et al. "Dietary flaxseed inhibits atherosclerosis in the LDL receptor-deficient mouse in part through antiproliferative and anti-inflammatory actions." Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, 2007, 293(4): H2394-402.
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18. Harper, C. R., Edwards, M. C. and Jacobson, T. A. "Flaxseed oil supplementation does not affect plasma lipoprotein concentration or particle size in human subjects." J Nutr, 2006, 136(11), 2844-8.
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22. Nordoey, A. "The Influence of Saturated Fat, Cholesterol, Corn Oil and Linseed Oil on the Adp-Induced Platelet Adhesiveness in the Rat." Thromb Diath Haemorrh, 1965, 13: 543-9.
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27. Richter, W. O., Jacob, B. G., Ritter, M. M. and Schwandt, P. "Treatment of primary chylomicronemia due to familial hypertriglyceridemia by omega-3 fatty acids." Metabolism, 1992, 41(10): 1100-5.
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29. Simopoulos, A. P. "Essential fatty acids in health and chronic disease." Am J Clin Nutr, 1999, 70(3 Suppl): 560S-569S.
30. Simopoulos, A. P. "Human requirement for N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids." Poult Sci, 2000, 79(7): 961-70.
31. Singh, K. K., Mridula, D., Rehal, J. and Barnwal, P. "Flaxseed: a potential source of food, feed and fiber." Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr, 2011, 51(3): 210-22.
32. Tzen, J., Cao, Y., Laurent, P., Ratnayake, C. and Huang, A. "Lipids, Proteins, and Structure of Seed Oil Bodies from Diverse Species." Plant Physiol, 1993, 101(1): 267-276.
33. Watkins, B. A., Li, Y., Lippman, H. E. and Seifert, M. F. "Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and skeletal health." Exp Biol Med (Maywood), 2001, 226(6): 485-97.
34. Weiler, H. A., Kovacs, H., Nitschmann, E., Bankovic-Calic, N., Aukema, H., et al. "Feeding flaxseed oil but not secoisolariciresinol diglucoside results in higher bone mass in healthy rats and rats with kidney disease." Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids, 2007, 76(5): 269-75.
35. Weiss, L. A., Barrett-Connor, E. and von Muhlen, D. "Ratio of n-6 to n-3 fatty acids and bone mineral density in older adults: the Rancho Bernardo Study." Am J Clin Nutr, 2005, 81(4): 934-8.
36. Zeybek U., Haksel M., "Türkiye'de ve Dünyada Önemli Tıbbi Bitkiler ve Kullanımları," 2011,116-121.
37. Williams, C. M. and Burdge, G. "Long-chain n-3 PUFA: plant v. marine sources." Proc Nutr Soc, 2006, 65(1): 42-50.
2. Axelson, M., Sjovall, J., Gustafsson, B. E. and Setchell, K. D. "Origin of lignans in mammals and identification of a precursor from plants." Nature,1982, 298(5875): 659-60.
3. Bhatty, R. S. "Compositional analysis of laboratory–prepared and commercial samples of linseed meal and of hull isolated from flax." Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society, 1995, 67:79-84.
4. Bloedon, L. T. and Szapary, P. O. "Flaxseed and cardiovascular risk." Nutr Rev. 2004: 62(1): 18-27.
5. Care, A. D. "Goitrogenic properties of linseed." Nature. 1954, 173(4395): 172-3.
6. Caughey, G. E., Mantzioris, E., Gibson, R. A., Cleland, L. G. and James, M. J. "The effect on human tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin 1 beta production of diets enriched in n-3 fatty acids from vegetable oil or fish oil." Am J Clin Nutr. 1996, 63(1): 116-22.
7. Cunnane, S. C., Hamadeh, M. J., Liede, A. C., Thompson, L. U., Wolever, T. M., "Nutritional attributes of traditional flaxseed in healthy young adults." Am J Clin Nutr. 1995, 61(1), 62-8.
8. Djousse, L., Arnett, D. K., Carr, J. J., Eckfeldt, J. H., Hopkins, P. N., et al. "Dietary linolenic acid is inversely associated with calcified atherosclerotic plaque in the coronary arteries: the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Family Heart Study." Circulation. 2005, 111(22): 2921-6.
9. Djousse, L., Pankow, J. S., Eckfeldt, J. H., Folsom, A. R., Hopkins, P. N., et al. "Relation between dietary linolenic acid and coronary artery disease in the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Family Heart Study." Am J Clin Nutr. 2001, 74(5): 612-9.
10. Dorrell, D. G. "Distribution of fatty acids in the seed of flax." Journal of Plant Science. 1970, 50: 71-75.
11. Dupasquier, C. M., Dibrov, E., Kneesh, A. L., Cheung, P. K., Lee, K. G., et al. "Dietary flaxseed inhibits atherosclerosis in the LDL receptor-deficient mouse in part through antiproliferative and anti-inflammatory actions." Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, 2007, 293(4): H2394-402.
12. Dupasquier, C. M., Weber, A. M., Ander, B. P., Rampersad, P. P., Steigerwald, S., et al. "Effects of dietary flaxseed on vascular contractile function and atherosclerosis during prolonged hypercholesterolemia in rabbits." Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2006, 291(6): H2987-96.
13. EMA (2006). ASSESSMENT REPORT ON LINUM USITATISSIMUM L., SEMEN.
14. Francois, C. A., Connor, S. L., Bolewicz, L. C. and Connor, W. E. "Supplementing lactating women with flaxseed oil does not increase docosahexaenoic acid in their milk." Am J Clin Nutr, 2003, 77(1), 226-33.
15. Freeman, T. P. S. o. f. I. F. i. H. N. "Structure of flaxseed, Flaxseed in Human Nutrition. Cunnane, S. C. a. T., L.H. Champaign", Illinois, AOCS Press, 1995,11-25.
16. Gebauer, S. K., Psota, T. L., Harris, W. S. and Kris-Etherton, P. M. "n-3 fatty acid dietary recommendations and food sources to achieve essentiality and cardiovascular benefits." Am J Clin Nutr, 2006, 83(6 Suppl): 1526S-1535S.
17. Gopalan, C., Ramasastri, B. V. and Subramanian, S. C. "Nutritive Value of Indian Foods. Hyderabad, India, National Institute of Nutrition." 2007.
18. Harper, C. R., Edwards, M. C. and Jacobson, T. A. "Flaxseed oil supplementation does not affect plasma lipoprotein concentration or particle size in human subjects." J Nutr, 2006, 136(11), 2844-8.
19. Hornstra, G., Haddeman, E. and ten Hoor, F. "Fish oils, prostaglandins, and arterial thrombosis." Lancet, 1979, 2(8151): 1080.
20. Lee, P. and Prasad, K. "Effects of flaxseed oil on serum lipids and atherosclerosis in hypercholesterolemic rabbits." J Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther, 2003, 8(3), 227-35.
21. Madhusudhan, B., Wiesenborn, D., Schwarz, J., Tostenson., K. and Gillespie, J. "A dry mechanical method for concentrating the lignan secoisolariciresinol diglucoside in flaxseed. Lebensmittel-Wissenschaft und Technologie" 2000,33: 268-275.
22. Nordoey, A. "The Influence of Saturated Fat, Cholesterol, Corn Oil and Linseed Oil on the Adp-Induced Platelet Adhesiveness in the Rat." Thromb Diath Haemorrh, 1965, 13: 543-9.
23. Odeleye, O. E. and Watson, R. R. "Health implications of the n-3 fatty acids. " Am J Clin Nutr, 1991, 53(1): 177-8.
24. Pan, A., Yu, D., Demark-Wahnefried, W., Franco, O. H. and Lin, X. "Meta-analysis of the effects of flaxseed interventions on blood lipids." Am J Clin Nutr, 2009, 90(2): 288-97.
25. Patade, A., Devareddy, L., Lucas, E. A., Korlagunta, K., Daggy, B. P., et al. "Flaxseed reduces total and LDL cholesterol concentrations in Native American postmenopausal women. " J Womens Health (Larchmt), 2008. 17(3): 355-66.
26. Ramos, C. I., Andrade de Lima, A. F., Grilli, D. G. and Cuppari, L. The Short-Term Effects of Olive Oil and Flaxseed Oil for the Treatment of Constipation in Hemodialysis Patients. J Ren Nutr, 2014.
27. Richter, W. O., Jacob, B. G., Ritter, M. M. and Schwandt, P. "Treatment of primary chylomicronemia due to familial hypertriglyceridemia by omega-3 fatty acids." Metabolism, 1992, 41(10): 1100-5.
28. Sacks, F. M., Stone, P. H., Gibson, C. M., Silverman, D. I., Rosner, B., et al. "Controlled trial of fish oil for regression of human coronary atherosclerosis. HARP Research Group." J Am Coll Cardiol, 1995, 25(7): 1492-8.
29. Simopoulos, A. P. "Essential fatty acids in health and chronic disease." Am J Clin Nutr, 1999, 70(3 Suppl): 560S-569S.
30. Simopoulos, A. P. "Human requirement for N-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids." Poult Sci, 2000, 79(7): 961-70.
31. Singh, K. K., Mridula, D., Rehal, J. and Barnwal, P. "Flaxseed: a potential source of food, feed and fiber." Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr, 2011, 51(3): 210-22.
32. Tzen, J., Cao, Y., Laurent, P., Ratnayake, C. and Huang, A. "Lipids, Proteins, and Structure of Seed Oil Bodies from Diverse Species." Plant Physiol, 1993, 101(1): 267-276.
33. Watkins, B. A., Li, Y., Lippman, H. E. and Seifert, M. F. "Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and skeletal health." Exp Biol Med (Maywood), 2001, 226(6): 485-97.
34. Weiler, H. A., Kovacs, H., Nitschmann, E., Bankovic-Calic, N., Aukema, H., et al. "Feeding flaxseed oil but not secoisolariciresinol diglucoside results in higher bone mass in healthy rats and rats with kidney disease." Prostaglandins Leukot Essent Fatty Acids, 2007, 76(5): 269-75.
35. Weiss, L. A., Barrett-Connor, E. and von Muhlen, D. "Ratio of n-6 to n-3 fatty acids and bone mineral density in older adults: the Rancho Bernardo Study." Am J Clin Nutr, 2005, 81(4): 934-8.
36. Zeybek U., Haksel M., "Türkiye'de ve Dünyada Önemli Tıbbi Bitkiler ve Kullanımları," 2011,116-121.
37. Williams, C. M. and Burdge, G. "Long-chain n-3 PUFA: plant v. marine sources." Proc Nutr Soc, 2006, 65(1): 42-50.
Authors
Duran, D. (2020). The Pharmacological Evaluation of Flax Seed Oil. Journal of Current Medical Research and Opinion, 3(05), 459–464. https://doi.org/10.15520/jcmro.v3i05.282
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